The history of waste: a reflection of how societies have changed

Formed from the sedimentation of marine organic remains during the Cretaceous period, tuffeau stone illustrates how nature has always evolved, transforming its own ‘waste’. Much later, in the era of Cro-Magnon man, this was not yet an issue for human societies: most of their waste was organic – food scraps, wood, natural fabrics – and its decomposition posed little problem for the environment.

Over the centuries, both the composition and management of waste have evolved. Thrown out of windows in the Middle Ages and partially recycled in modern times, today most waste ends up buried or incinerated. But unlike marine sediments that turn into rock, our contemporary waste – plastics, concrete, metals and other petrochemical-based materials – is resistant to weathering and generates a significant proportion of greenhouse gas emissions, contributing directly to climate change.

Waste management has been a key issue for human societies since ancient times. Its history reflects both our lifestyles and the environmental challenges we now face. Here we offer a brief overview, focusing on a few examples from France and around the world.

The first attempts to organise waste management date back to ancient Greece. In Athens, a rudimentary system required citizens to dispose of their rubbish outside the city walls. The main aim was to prevent rubbish from accumulating in living areas, which could lead to disease and unpleasantness.

The Romans, meanwhile, developed more sophisticated infrastructure. One of the first notable initiatives was the construction of the Cloaca Maxima, a vast sewer system designed to carry away waste water. At the same time, solid waste was stored in pits located on the outskirts of cities. These initiatives demonstrate an early awareness of the importance of urban sanitation, although their effectiveness was limited by a lack of control mechanisms and strict regulations.

The fall of the Roman Empire, coupled with the rapid growth of large urban centres, led to a sharp decline in waste management in Europe. Medieval towns saw rubbish piling up in the streets, often dumped directly from homes. The lack of effective waste disposal systems led to water and air pollution, which helped spread epidemics, including the Black Death in the 14th century, which wiped out a big chunk of Europe’s population.

Nevertheless, some attempts at improvement did emerge. In France, in the 12th century, Philippe Auguste ordered the paving of the streets of Paris in order to limit the stagnation of filth. Later, Charles V established canals and ditches for waste disposal, but these measures remained poorly enforced and ineffective on a large scale due to a lack of suitable infrastructure and a lack of cooperation from the population.

With the Renaissance, the authorities became aware of the importance of a healthier environment. A service for removing sludge and rubbish was set up in France, under the responsibility of the kingdom. However, the population was often reluctant to accept these new regulations, refusing to pay the associated taxes or preferring to continue throwing their waste into the streets, leading to social resistance to these changes.

At the same time, a new figure emerged: ragpickers. These scavengers played a key role in waste management by recycling various materials (fabrics, metals, bones) to resell or transform them. Their activity foreshadowed modern sorting and recycling systems, demonstrating that a more rational and sustainable approach to waste management was beginning to emerge.

From the 18th century onwards, a hygiene movement developed in Europe, particularly in response to epidemics that decimated urban populations. Cities undertook efforts to improve public health by building new sewerage systems and introducing stricter regulations on waste disposal. At the same time, landfills and dumps were set up away from residential areas to collect waste, with no consideration for the environment. These sites caused nuisances, toxic gas emissions, fire hazards and soil and water pollution.

In the 19th century, Baron Haussmann’s work in Paris radically transformed waste management. Under the impetus of Napoleon III, he modernised the sewerage system, widened the streets and imposed stricter health standards. Sanitation then became a priority in the design of modern cities, with the creation of regular collections and incentives for better urban hygiene.

In 1884, Eugène Poubelle, Prefect of the Seine, introduced a major innovation: the obligation for every household to deposit their waste in specific containers, the first ‘bins’. This measure initially met with strong opposition from residents and building owners, who saw it as an additional constraint. However, over time, the use of bins became the norm, facilitating waste collection and significantly improving urban cleanliness. Gradually, other cities in France and Europe adopted this model, marking a major step towards more controlled waste management.

The first incinerators also appeared at the end of the 19th century, particularly in England, marking a new stage in waste management. However, their use remained limited to certain large cities and only became widespread in the 20th century.

The 20th century was marked by massive industrialisation and an explosion in the quantity and variety of waste. Faced with this growing problem, governments introduced regulations to better manage waste and encourage more responsible practices.

In France, the law of 15 July 1975 (Law 75-633) established an obligation for local authorities to collect and treat waste. This law laid the modern foundations for waste management, promoting incineration and controlled landfill in particular, while introducing the principles of recycling.

In 1992, the Royal Law marked a turning point by imposing waste reduction at source and encouraging recycling. It also encouraged the creation of recovery channels for certain materials (glass, paper, plastic), thus initiating the transition towards more sustainable management and greater accountability on the part of businesses and citizens.